South America
History
Main article: History of South America
Agriculture and animal domestication
The prehistoric Cueva de las Manos, or Cave of Hands, in Argentina
South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait) from the territory that is present-day Russia. Some archaeological finds do not fit this theory and have led to an alternative theory of Pre-Siberian American Aborigines. The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to about 6500 BC, when potatoes, chillies and beans began to be cultivated for food in the highlands of the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence further suggests that manioc, which remains a staple food today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BC.
By 2000 BC, many agrarian village communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding religious regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.
South American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuas, guanacos, and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods.
Pre-Columbian civilizations
The Inca ruins of Machu Picchu.
The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America.
The earliest known settlements, and culture in South America and America altogether, are the Valdivia on the Southwest coast of Ecuador.
One of the earliest known South American civilizations was at Norte Chico, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Norte Chico is contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. The Chavn established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavn de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavn civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.
The Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what is now modern Colombia. They established a confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers.
Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: Moche (100 BC 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru); Tiuahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC 1200 AD, Bolivia); the Caaris (in south central Ecuador), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC 800 AD, Peru); Wari or Huari Empire (600 1200, Central and northern Peru); Chimu Empire (13001470, Peruvian northern coast); Chachapoyas; and the Aymaran kingdoms (10001450, Bolivia and southern Peru).
Holding their capital at the great cougar-shaped city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, and “the land of the four regions,” in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture.
European colonization
Main articles: Spanish colonization of America and Portuguese colonization of America
A representation of a Mestizo, in a “Pintura de Castas” in the Colonial era. “From Spaniard and Amerindian woman, begets Mestizo”.
In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great cultural and maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries.
The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46 37′ W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.
Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.
European infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus)o which the native populations had no immune resistancend systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry’s mita, decimated the native population under Spanish control.
African slaves were brought in large quantities for several centuries for a number of reasons, both political and economical; however, it was mainly because they were much better fitted than the American natives for hard labor in tropical climate such as sugar cane plantations or gold mining.
The Spaniards were committed to convert their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with traditional idolatry and their polytheistic beliefs. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church’s evangelization in Quechua, Aymara, and Guaran actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form.
Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, the mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and white or mestizo mothers.
Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. On the other hand, Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western architectural style to the continent as well as they helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered, conquered or found. They also significantly improved economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American.
Guyana was a Portuguese, Dutch, and eventually a British colony. The country was once partitioned into three parts, each being controlled by one of the colonial powers until the country was finally taken over fully by the British.
Independence
Main article: Latin American wars of independence
Guayaquil conference, between Jos de San Martn and Simn Bolvar.
The South American possessions of the Spanish Crown won their independence between 1804 and 1826 in the Spanish American wars of independence. Simn Bolvar of Venezuela and Jos de San Martn of Argentina were the most important leaders of the independence struggles. Bolvar led a great uprising in northern South America, then led his army southward towards Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martn led an army from the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata across the Andes Mountains, meeting up with General Bernardo O’Higgins in Chile, and then marched northward to gain the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the Royal Army of the Spanish Crown and forced its surrender.
In the Portuguese colony of Brazil, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom Joo VI, proclaimed the country’s independence in 1822 and became Brazil’s first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal.
Although Bolivar attempted to unify politically the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent into the “Gran Colombia”, they rapidly became independent states without political connections between them, despite some later attempts such as the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation.
A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966
Suriname, from Dutch control, in 1975
French Guiana remains part of France.
Recent history
Jorge Videla (left) and Augusto Pinochet in Mendoza, Argentina in 1978
The continent became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by United States-aligned military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed on inter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of “National Security” against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict.
Colombia currently faces an internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and now involves several illegal armed groups of leftist leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords.
Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, in most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued this far.
International indebtedness turned into a severe problem in late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not yet developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without recurring to unorthodox economical policies, as most recently illustrated by Argentina’s default in the early 21st century.
Politics
Scheme for geographic regions and subregions used by the United Nations Statistics Division.
During the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments have drifted to the political left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay and Venezuela. Despite the move to the left, South America for the most part still embraces free market policies, and it is taking an active path toward greater continental integration.
Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions: Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world. This new political organization known as Union of South American Nations seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs.
Geography
Main article: Geography of South America
A composite relief image of South America.
The Andes.
South America occupies the southern portion of the landmass sometimes referred to as the New World. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darin watershed along the Colombiaanama border, or (according to some sources) by the Panama Canal which transects the Isthmus of Panama. Geopolitically and geographically all of Panama including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus is typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate.
Many of the islands of the Caribbean (or West Indies) e.g., the Leeward and Lesser Antilles sit atop the Caribbean Plate, a tectonic plate with a diffuse topography. The islands of Aruba, Barbados, Trinidad, and Tobago sit on the northerly South American continental shelf. The Netherlands Antilles and the federal dependencies of Venezuela lie along the northerly South American shelf. Geopolitically, the island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are generally grouped as a part or subregion of North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Seancluding Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guianare also known as Caribbean South America. Other islands are the Galpagos islands that belong to Ecuador and Easter Island (in Oceania but belongs to Chile), Robinson Crusoe Island, Chilo, and the Tierra del Fuego.
South America is home to the world’s highest waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the largest river (by volume), the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at 6,962 m [22,841 ft]); the driest place on earth, the Atacama Desert; the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world’s southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile.
South America’s major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. The many resources of South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets has led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South American states, often causing extreme political instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export.
South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth. South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicua, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major proportion of the Earth’s species. Regions in South America include the Andean States, the Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Brazil which is the largest country by far, in both area and population.
Demographics
Urarina shaman, 1988
Descendants of Indigenous peoples, such as the Quechua and Aymara, or the Urarina of Amazonia make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru. Also are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies.
People of Venezuela and Colombia show a population of about 25% white and European descendants. While the people of European descent are more of a majority in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile.
South America is also home to one of the biggest population of Africans. This group is also significantly present in Guyana, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, French Guiana, and Ecuador. Mestizos (mixed white and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. East Indians form the largest ethnic groups in Guyana and Suriname. Brazil followed by Peru also have the biggest Japanese and Chinese communities in South America.
Brazil is the most diverse country in South America, with large population of Whites, Blacks, Mestizos and Mulattos, as well as a sizeable community of Middle Easterns and Asians.
Girls of European descent in Uruguay
Country or
territory with flag
Area
(km) (per sq mi)
Population
(July 2009 est.)
Population density
per km
Capital
Argentina Argentina
2766890 2,766,890 km2 (1,068,302 sq mi)
40,482,000
1430 14.3/km (37/sq mi)
Buenos Aires
Bolivia Bolivia
1098580 1,098,580 km2 (424,164 sq mi)
9,863,000
0810 8.4/km (21.8/sq mi)
La Paz and Sucre
Brazil Brazil
8514877 8,514,877 km2 (3,287,612 sq mi)
191,241,714
2200 22.0/km (57/sq mi)
Braslia
Chile Chile
756950 756,950 km2 (292,260 sq mi)
16,928,873
2110 22/km (57/sq mi)
Santiago
Colombia Colombia
1138910 1,138,910 km2 (439,736 sq mi)
45,928,970
3770 40/km (103.6/sq mi)
Bogot
Ecuador Ecuador
0283560 283,560 km2 (109,483 sq mi)
14,573,101
4710 53.8/km (139.3/sq mi)
Quito
Falkland Islands Falkland Islands (United Kingdom)
0012173 12,173 km2 (4,700 sq mi)
3,140
0026 0.26/km (0.7/sq mi)
Port Stanley
French Guiana French Guiana (France)
0091000 91,000 km2 (35,135 sq mi)
221,500
0210 2.7/km (5.4/sq mi)
Cayenne
Guyana Guyana
0214999 214,999 km2 (83,012 sq mi)
772,298
0360 3.5/km (9.1/sq mi)
Georgetown
Paraguay Paraguay
0406750 406,750 km2 (157,047 sq mi)
6,831,306
1560 15.6/km (40.4/sq mi)
Asuncin
Peru Peru
1285220 1,285,220 km2 (496,226 sq mi)
29,132,013
2170 22/km (57/sq mi)
Lima
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands South Georgia and
South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom)
0003093 3,093 km2 (1,194 sq mi)
20
0000 0/km (0/sq mi)
Grytviken
Suriname Suriname
0163270 163,270 km2 (63,039 sq mi)
472,000
0270 3/km (7.8/sq mi)
Paramaribo
Uruguay Uruguay
0176220 176,220 km2 (68,039 sq mi)
3,477,780
1940 19.4/km (50.2/sq mi)
Montevideo
Venezuela Venezuela
0912050 912,050 km2 (352,144 sq mi)
26,814,843
2780 30.2/km (72/sq mi)
Caracas
Total
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21.5/km
See also: List of South American countries by population
Indigenous peoples
Alacalufe, Atacameos, Aymara, Aw, Aguarunas, Ashanincas
Banawa, Caaris, Caiapos, Chibcha
Cocama, Diaguitas, Chayahuita, Enxet
G, Guaran, Juris, Mapuche
Matss, Pehuenche, Quechuas, Shipibo
Shuar, Tupi, Xucuru, Urarina, Wayuu
Yagua, Ynomam, Zaparos, Arawaks, Wai-Wai
Economy
Main article: Economy of South America
Rafael Correa, Evo Morales, Nstor Kirchner, Cristina Fernndez, Luiz Inacio Lula Da Silva, Nicanor Duarte, and Hugo Chvez at the signing of the founding charter of the Bank of the South.
Because of histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates remain high and investment remains low. Interest rates are usually twice that of the United States. For example, interest-rates are about 22% in Venezuela and 23% in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which has been implementing free market economic policies since establishing military dictatorship in 1973 and has been increasing its social spending since the return of democratic rule in the early 1990s. This has led to economic stability and interest rates in the low single digits.
South America relies heavily on the exporting of goods and natural resources. On an exchange rate basis Brazil (the seventh largest economy in the world and the second largest in America) leads the way in total amount of exports at $137.8 billion dollars followed by Chile at 58.12 billion and Argentina with 46.46 billion.
The economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is considered to be larger than in most other continents. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Bolivia and many other South American countries, the richest 20% may own over 60% of the nation’s wealth, while the poorest 20% may own less than 5%. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie adjacent to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.
Country
GDP (nominal) of 2009
GDP (PPP) of 2009
GDP (PPP) per capita of 2009
HDI of 2007
Argentina
&0000000000326474.000000326,474
&0000000000572860.000000572,860
&0000000000014413.00000014,413
&0000000000000000.8660000.866
Bolivia
&0000000000017413.00000017,413
&0000000000043424.00000043,424
&0000000000004330.0000004,330
&0000000000000000.7290000.729
Brazil
&0000000001572590.0000001,572,590
&0000000001981642.0000001,981,642
&0000000000010325.00000010,325
&0000000000000000.8130000.813
Chile
&0000000000169573.000000169,573
&0000000000243044.000000243,044
&0000000000014510.00000014,510
&0000000000000000.8780000.878
Colombia
&0000000000269654.000000269,654
&0000000000400300.000000400,300
&0000000000008215.0000008,215
&0000000000000000.8070000.807
Ecuador
&0000000000052572.00000052,572
&0000000000106993.000000106,993
&0000000000007685.0000007,685
&0000000000000000.8060000.806
Falkland Islands
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&0000000000025000.00000025,000
N/A
French Guiana (France)
&0000000000003524.0000003,524
N/A
&0000000000002300.0000002,300 (nominal, 2007)
N/A
Guyana
&0000000000001130.0000001,130
&0000000000003082.0000003,082
&0000000000004035.0000004,035
&0000000000000000.7290000.729
Paraguay
&0000000000016006.00000016,006
&0000000000029403.00000029,403
&0000000000004778.0000004,778
&0000000000000000.7610000.761
Peru
&0000000000127598.000000127,598
&0000000000245883.000000245,883
&0000000000008580.0000008,580
&0000000000000000.8060000.806
Suriname
&0000000000002984.0000002,984
&0000000000004436.0000004,436
&0000000000008323.0000008,323
&0000000000000000.7690000.769
Uruguay
&0000000000032262.00000032,262
&0000000000042543.00000042,543
&0000000000013294.00000013,294
&0000000000000000.8650000.865
Venezuela
&0000000000319443.000000319,443
&0000000000335200.000000335,200
&0000000000012785.00000012,785
&0000000000000000.8440000.844
Tourism
A view of the Copacabana Beach, in Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, one of the main tourist centres in the world.
Tourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for many South American countries. Historical relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, vibrant and colorful cities, and stunning landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region are Machu Picchu, the Amazon Rainforest, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Isla Margarita, Natal, Buenos Aires, So Paulo, Angel Falls, Cuzco, Lake Titicaca, Patagonia, Cartagena and the Galpagos islands.
Culture
Fiesta in Palenque. Afro-Colombian tradition from San Basilio de Palenque, a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2005.
South Americans are culturally influenced by the historic connection with Europe, especially Spain and Portugal, and the impact of mass culture from the United States of America.
South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include cumbia from Colombia, samba and bossa nova from Brazil, and tango from Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genre Nueva Cancin movement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America. People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar and cajon duos or trios in the most mestizo (mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), the Tondero (from Piura), the 19th century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early 20th century Paraguayan Guarania. In the late 20th century, Spanish rock emerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock. Brazil has a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres.
The literature of South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, Gabriel Garca Mrquez in novels, and Pablo Neruda and Jorge Luis Borges in other genres. The Brazilian Machado de Assis, a 19th century realist writer, widely regarded as the greatest writer of Brazilian literature has among the admirers of his unique style, names such as Jos Saramago, Carlos Fuentes, Susan Sontag and Harold Bloom.
Because of South America’s broad ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on African, American Indian, Asian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well-known for its West Africannfluenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians and Venezuelans regularly consume wine, while Argentina along with Paraguay, Uruguay, and people in southern Chile and Brazil enjoy mate, a regional brewed herb cultivated for its drink, the Paraguayan version, terere, differing from the others in that it is served cold. Pisco is a liquor distilled from grapevine produced in Peru and Chile; however, there is a recurring dispute between those countries regarding its origins. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, African, Andean, and Amazonic food.
Language
Romance languages in Latin America: Spanish Portuguese French
Spanish and Portuguese are the most spoken languages in South America. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, spoken by nearly half of the continent’s inhabitants. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries. Spanish is also taught in Brazil, being the most spoken language as a first, second and third language in South America. Dutch is the official language of Suriname; English is the official language of Guyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country such as Hindi and Arabic. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands. French is the official language of French Guiana.
Indigenous languages of South America include Quechua in Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia; Guaran in Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia; Aymara in Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; and Mapudungun is spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile and, more rarely, Argentina. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages.
Other languages found in South America include, Hindi and Indonesian in Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Chile; and German in certain pockets of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Venezuela and Paraguay. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil, Riograndenser Hunsrckisch being the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form of Pomeranian is also well represented and is experiencing a revival. Welsh remains spoken and written in the historic towns of Trelew and Rawson in the Argentine Patagonia. There are also small clusters of Japanese-speakers in Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, and Ecuador. Arabic speakers, often of Lebanese, Syrian, or Palestinian descent, can be found in Arab communities in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, and less frequently in Colombia and Paraguay.
In most of the continent’s countries, the upper classes and well-educated people regularly study English, French, German, or Italian, and are typically well-traveled. In those areas where tourism is a significant industry, English and some other European languages are often spoken. There are small Portuguese speaking areas in northernmost Uruguay because of the proximity of Brazil.
Sport
Main article: Sport in South America
See also
Latin America portal
Main article: Outline of South America
America (terminology)
Flags of South America
Latin America
References
Content notes
^ Continent Model: In some parts of the world South America is viewed as a subcontinent of America (a single continent in these areas), for example Latin America, Latin Europe, and Iran. In most of the countries with English as an official language, however, it is considered a continent. See Continent.
Notes
^ American, Merriam-Webster OnLine.
^ “South America. The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 20016. New York, Columbia University Press”: “fourth largest continent …, the southern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere.”
^ LANIC country page
^ a b c O’Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp. 25
^ “The Cambridge History of Latin America”, edited by Leslie Bethell, Cambridge University Press (1995) ISBN 0-521-39525-9
^ http://books.google.com/books?id=6tNWbywFXhkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=latin+american+history
^ Globalpolicy.org
^ Cohen, Saul Bernard. 2003. “North and Middle America” (Ch. 5). Geopolitics of the World System (ISBN 0847699072)
^ “Americas” Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49), United Nations Statistics Division
^ “North America” Atlas of Canada
^ North America Atlas National Geographic
^ “Panama”. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
^ Geography: Panama CIA World Factbook 2008.
^ South America Atlas National Geographic
^ North America Atlas National Geographic
^ Unstats Americas
^ “Atacama Desert @ National Geographic Magazine”. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0308/feature3/. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ “Driest Place | Driest Desert Atacama Desert”. Extremescience.com. 2007-01-25. http://www.extremescience.com/DriestPlace.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ http://quest.nasa.gov/challenges/marsanalog/egypt/AtacamaAdAstra.pdf
^ Dean, Bartholomew 2009 Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-081303378
^ “CIA World Factbook”. Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ “CIA World Factbook”. Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bl.html. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ Composicin tnica de las Tres reas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI
^ “CIA World Factbook”. Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/ar.html. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ “poblacin blanca en Uruguay”. Geografia.fflch.usp.br. http://www.geografia.fflch.usp.br/publicacoes/Geousp/Geousp13/Geousp13_Intercambio_Maurel.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ Latinoamerica.
^ “Argentina, como Chile y Uruguay, su poblacin est formada casi exclusivamente por una poblacin blanca e blanca mestiza procedente del sur de Europa, ms del 90% E. Garca Zarza, 1992, 19”. Geografia.fflch.usp.br. http://www.geografia.fflch.usp.br/publicacoes/Geousp/Geousp13/Geousp13_Intercambio_Maurel.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile.
^ The Chilean population is rather homogeneous with 95.4 % of its population having European ancestors.
^ “Bartleby”. Bartleby. http://www.bartleby.com/64/C006/036.html. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ “Japan Times”. Search.japantimes.co.jp. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20080115i1.html=search.japantimes.co.jp. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ a b Land areas and population estimates are taken from The 2008 World Factbook which currently uses July 2007 data, unless otherwise noted.
^ La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia;
^ Includes Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean, a Chilean territory frequently reckoned in Oceania. Santiago is the administrative capital of Chile; Valparaso is the site of legislative meetings.
^ Claimed by Argentina.
^ Falkland Islands: July 2008 population estimate. CIA World Factbook.
^ (Jan. 2009) (French) INSEE, Government of France. “Population des rgions au 1er janvier”. http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=99&ref_id=CMRSOS02137. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
^ Claimed by Argentina; the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean are commonly associated with Antarctica (due to proximity) and have no permanent population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100 researchers and visitors.
^ “CIA – The World Factbook – Rank Order – Exports”. Cia.gov. 2009-04-09. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2078rank.html. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ Source
^ a b Source
^ “Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G”. The United Nations. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
^ a b (French) INSEE-CEROM. “Les comptes conomiques de la Guyane en 2006 : premiers rsultats”. http://prod-afd.afd.zeni.fr/jahia/webdav/site/cerom/users/admin_cerom/public/Pdf/CR2006_guy.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-14.
^ “Bigtravelweb”. Bigtravelweb. 2008-10-13. http://bigtravelweb.com/travel/2008/10/13/tourism-trends-visitor-numbers/. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ Latin American tourism growth
^ “Top attractions”. Gosouthamerica.about.com. 2007-12-04. http://gosouthamerica.about.com/od/topdestinations/tp/Attractions2006.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
^ Backpackers destination[dead link]
^ “South America Travel, Tour To South America Continent”. http://travour.com/south-america/index.html. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
^ Ambassador Rubens A. Barbosa. “MERCOSUL IN THE REGIONAL CONTEXT”. http://www.brasilemb.org/embassy/embaixador_regional.shtml. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
Sources
“South America”. The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online. 2005. New York: Columbia University Press.
GeoHive: The population of continents, regions and countries
Latin American Network Information Database
Fundamental Concepts
South America has the longest mountain system-The Andes, the greatest river-The Amazon and the largest area under rainforests in the world. The Europeans came to know about the continent in 1498, when Christopher Columbus reached the mouth of the river Orinoco in what is now Venezuela. Soon the native American Indians were subdued and the whole continent was colonised, mainly by Spain and Portugal. Colonial rule lasted for 300 years.
External links
The Wikibook wikibooks: has a page on the topic of
Wikijunior South America
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: South America
v d e
Countries of South America
Countries and territories also in or commonly reckoned to be elsewhere in the Americas shown in italics
Sovereign states
Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Panama Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela
Dependencies
Falkland Islands / South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (UK) Aruba / Netherlands Antilles (Netherlands)
Overseas department
French Guiana (France)
v d e
Continents of the world
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
Afro-Eurasia
Americas
Eurasia
Oceania
Geological supercontinents
Gondwana Laurasia Pangaea Pannotia Rodinia Columbia Kenorland Nena Ur Vaalbara
Historical continents
Arctica Asiamerica Atlantica Avalonia Baltica Cimmeria Congo craton Euramerica Kalaharia Kazakhstania Laurentia North China Siberia South China Ur
Submerged continents
Kerguelen Plateau Zealandia
Possible future supercontinents
Pangaea Ultima Amasia
Mythical and theorized continents
Atlantis Lemuria Meropis Mu Terra Australis
See also Regions of the world
v d e
Regions of the world
Africa
Northern (Maghreb) Sub-Sahara (Central
Southern Western Eastern (Horn))
Oceania
Australasia Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia
Americas
North (Northern Middle Central Caribbean) South (Southern Cone) Anglo Latin
Polar
Arctic Antarctic
Asia
Central Eastern(Northeastern) Northern Southeastern Southern Western
Oceans
World Arctic Atlantic Indian Pacific Southern
Europe
Central Eastern Northern Southeastern Southern Western
See also Continents of the world
Categories: South America | ContinentsHidden categories: All articles with dead external links | Articles with dead external links from April 2009 | Articles containing Spanish language text | Articles containing Portuguese language text
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