Oil palm – red diode laser module 650nm – 830nm diode laser module
Planting
For each hectare of oil palm, which is harvested year-round, the annual production averages 10 tonnes of fruit, which yields 3,000 kg of pericarp oil, and 750 kg of seed kernels, which yield 250 kg of high quality palm kernel oil as well as 500 kg of kernel meal. Palm fronds and kernel meal are processed for use as livestock feed.
All modern, commercial planting material consists of tenera palms or DxP hybrids, which are obtained by crossing thickshelled dura with shell-less pisifera. Although common commercial pregerminated seed is as thick-shelled as the dura mother tree, the resulting tree will produce thin-shelled tenera fruit. An alternative is to pre-germinated seed, once constraints to mass production are overcome, is tissue-cultured or lonal palms which provide rue copies of high yielding DxP palms.
It is essential for an oil palm nursery to have an uninterrupted supply of clean water and topsoil which is both well-structured and sufficiently deep enough to accommodate three rounds of on-site bag-filling. Approximately 35ha can grow enough seedlings over a three-year period to plant a 5,000ha plantation. Pre-nursery seedlings must be watered daily. Whenever rainfall is less than 10 mm per day, irrigation is required, and the system must be capable of uniformly applying 6.5mm water per day.
Pre-nursery seedlings in the four-leaf stage of development (10 to 14 weeks after planting) are usually transplanted to the main nursery, after their gradual adjustment to full sunlight and rigid selection process. During culling, seedlings that have rassy, rinkled, wisted, or olled leaves are discarded.
Weeds growing in the polybags must be carefully pulled out. Herbicides should not be used. Numerous insects (e.g., ants, armyworm, bagworm, aphids, thrips, mites, grasshoppers, mealybugs) and vertebrates (e.g., rats, squirrels, porcupine, wild boar, monkeys) are pests in oil palm nurseries and must be carefully identified before control measures are implemented.
After eight months in the nursery, normal healthy plants should be 0.81 m in height and display 5 to 8 functional leaves.
Oil palm plantations in the municipality of Aracataca, Colombia.
The proper approach to oil palm development begins with the establishment of leguminous cover plants, immediately following land clearing. It helps prevent soil erosion and surface run-off, improve soil structure and palm root development, increase the response to mineral fertilizer in later years, and reduce the danger of micronutrient deficiencies. Leguminous cover plants also help prevent outbreaks of Oryctes beetles, which nest in exposed decomposing vegetation. Both phosphorus and potassium fertilizers are needed to maximize the leguminous cover plants symbiotic nitrogen fixation potential of approximately 200 kg nitrogen/ha/yr and are applied to most soils at 115 to 300 kg phosphorous oxide/ha and 35 to 60 kg potassium oxide/ha. Young palms are severely set back where grasses are allowed to dominate the inter-row vegetation, particularly on poor soils where the correction of nutrient deficiencies is difficult and costly.
Crop nutrient
Oil palm tree
Nutrient uptake is low during the first year but increases steeply between year one and year three (when harvesting commences) and stabilizes around years five to six. Early applications of fertilizer, better planting material, more rigid culling has led to a dramatic increase in early yields in third to sixth years from planting. In regions without any serious drop in rainfall, yields of over 25 tonnes of fresh fruit bunches per hectare have been achieved in the second year of harvesting.
Nitrogen deficiency is usually associated with conditions of water-logging, heavy weed infestation and topsoil erosion. Symptoms are a general paling and stiffening of the pinnae which lose their glossy lustre. Extended deficiency will reduce the number of effective fruit bunches produced as well as the bunch size.
Phosphorous deficient leaves do not show specific symptoms but frond length, bunch size and trunk diameter are all reduced.
Potassium deficiency is very common and is the major yield constraint in sandy or peaty soils. The most frequent symptom is “confluent orange spotting”. Pale green spots appear on the pinnae of older leaves; as the deficiency intensifies, the spots turn orange or reddish-orange and dessication sets in, starting from the tips and outer margins of the pinnae. Other symptoms are “orange blotch” and “mid-crown yellowing”. In soils having a low water holding capacity (sands and peats) potassium deficiency can lead to a rapid, premature dessication of fronds.
Copper deficiency is common on deep peat soils and occurs also on very sandy soils. It appears initially as whitish yellow mottling of younger fronds. As the deficiency intensifies, yellow, mottled, inter-veinal stripes appear and rusty, brown spots develop on the distal end of leaflets. Affected fronds and leaflets are stunted and leaflets dry up. On sandy soils, palms recover rapidly after a basal application of 50 grams of copper sulphate. On peat soils, lasting correction of copper deficiency is difficult, as applied copper sulphate is rendered unavailable. A promising method to correct copper deficiency on peat soil is to mix copper sulphate with clay soil and to form tennis-ball sized opper mudballs that are placed around the palm and that provide a slow-release source of available copper.
Healthy, well selected seedlings are a pre-condition for early and sustained high yield. In most cases granular multinutrient compound fertilizers are the preferred nutrient source for seedlings in the nursery. Where sub-soil is used to fill the polybags, extra dressings of Kieserite may be required (10-15 g every 6 to 8 weeks). Where compound fertilizers are not available, equivalent quantities of straight materials should be used.
To maintain good fertilizer response and high yields in older palms (selective) thinning is often necessary.
Cross-breeding
Oil palm fruit
Unlike other relatives, the oil palm trees do not produce offshoots; propagation is by sowing the seeds.
Before the Second World War, selection work had started in the Deli dura population in Malaya. Pollen was imported from Africa, and DxT and DxP crosses were made. Segregation of fruit forms in crosses made in the 1950s was often incorrect. In the absence of a good marker gene, there was no way of knowing whether control of pollination was adequate.
It was only after the work of Beirnaert and Vanderweyen (1941) that it became feasible to monitor the efficacy of controlled pollination. From 1963 until the introduction of weevils in 1982 contamination in Malaysia’s commercial plantings was generally low. It appears that thrips, the main pollinating agent at that time, rarely gained access to bagged female inflorescences. However, E. kamerunicus is much more persistent, and after it was introduced D contamination became a significant problem. This problem appears to have persisted for much of the 1980s, but in a 1991 comparison of seed sources, contamination had been reduced to below 2% (Rao and Kushairi, 1999), indicating that control had been restored.
Marker methods available now are simple and cheap to apply, It should be mandatory in every serious oil palm breeding programme. detection of contaminated and illegitimate crosses is also very important, and significant cost savings could be made by eliminating such crosses before field planting. (Lim and Rao, 2004)
A 1992 study at a trial plot in Banting, Selangor revealed yield of Deli dura oil palms after four generations of selection was 60% greater than that of the unselected base population. Crossing the dura and pisifera to give the thin-shelled tenera fruit type improved partitioning of dry matter within the fruit, giving a 30% increase in oil yield at the expense of shell, without changing total dry matter production.
Disease
Basal stem rot, caused by the fungus ganoderma, is the most serious disease of oil palm in Malaysia and Indonesia. Previously, research on basal stem rot was hampered by the failure to artificially infect oil palm with the fungus. Although Ganoderma had been associated with BSR (Thompson, 1931), proof of its pathogenicity to satisfy Koch postulate was only achieved in the early 1990s by inoculating oil palm seedling roots (Ariffin and Idris, 1991) or by using rubber wood blocks (Khairuddin, 1990). A reliable and quick technique for testing the pathogenicity of the Ganoderma fungus by inoculating oil palm germinated seeds.
This fatal disease can lead to losses as much as 80% after repeated planting cycles. Ganoderma produces enzymes that degrade the oil palm tissue and affect the infected oil palm xylem thus causing serious problems to the distribution of water and other nutrients to the top of the palm tree. Ganoderma infection is well defined by its lesion in the stem. The cross section of infected palm stem shows that the lesion appears as a light brown area of rotting tissue with a distinctive irregularly shaped darker band at the borders of this area. The infected tissue become as an ashen-grey powdery and if the palm remains standing, the infected trunk rapidly become hollow.
In a 2007 study in Portugal, scientists suggest control of ganoderma on oil palms would benefit from further consideration of the process as one of white rot. Ganoderma are extraordinary organisms capable exclusively of degrading lignin to carbon dioxide and water: celluloses are then available as nutrients for the fungus. It is necessary to consider this mode of attack as a white rot involving lignin biodegradation, for integrated control. The existing literature does not report this area and appears to be concerned particularly with the mode of spread and molecular biology of ganoderma. The white rot perception opens up new fields in breeding/selecting for resistant cultivars of oil palms with high lignin content, ensuring the conditions for lignin decomposition are reduced, and simply sealing damaged oil palms to stop decay. It is likely that spread is by spores rather than roots. The knowledge gained can be employed in the rapid degradation of oil palm waste on the plantation floor by inoculating suitable fungi, and/or treating the waste more appropriately (e.g. chipping and spreading over the floor rather than windrowing).
Endophytic bacteria are organisms inhabiting plant organs that at some time in their life cycle can colonize the internal plant tissues without causing apparent harm to the host. Introducing endophytic bacteria to the roots to control plant disease is to manipulate the indigenous bacterial communities of the roots in a manner, which leads to enhanced suppression of soil-born pathogens. The use of endophytic bacteria should thus be preferred to other biological control agents as they are internal colonizers, with better ability to compete within the vascular systems, limiting Ganoderma for both nutrients and space during its proliferation. Two bacterial isolates Burkholderia cepacia(B3) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa(P3) were selected for evaluation in the glasshouse for their efficacy in enhancing growth and subsequent suppression of the spread of BSR in oil palm seedlings.
Little leaf syndrome has not been fully explained but has often been confused with Boron deficiency. The growing point is damaged, sometimes by Oryctes beetle. Small, distorted leaves that resemble Boron deficiency emerge. This is often followed by secondary pathogenic infections in the spear that can lead to spear rot and palm death.
History
African Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis)
The oil palm is a tropical palm tree. There are two species of oil palm, the better known one is the one originating from Guinea, Africa and was first illustrated by Nicholaas Jacquin in 1763, hence its name, Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
Palm was introduced to Malaysia (then the British colony of Malaya) in 1910 by Scotsman William Sime and English banker Henry Darby. The first plantations were mostly established and operated by British plantation owners, such as Sime Darby. The large plantation companies remained listed in London until the Malaysian government engineered their “Malaysianisation” throughout the 1960s and 1970s.
In 2007, Golden Hope Berhad, Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad and Sime Darby merged to form Malaysia’s biggest publicly traded oil palm company with landbank exceeding 633,000 hectares. Its plantations are spread across Malaysia and Indonesian islands of Sumatera, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Oil palm planting is Sime Darby largest revenue generator. In 2009, about 70% of the conglomerate’s profits comes from the harvest and sale of palm oil. As an integrated palm oil entity, Sime Darby produce specialty fats, oleochemicals and biodiesel for export.
Federal Land Development Authority (Felda) is the world’s biggest oil palm planter with planted area close to 900,000 hectares in Malaysia and Indonesia. Felda was formed on July 1, 1956 when the Land Development Act came into force with the main aim of eradicating poverty. Settlers were each allocated 10 acres of land (about 4 hectares) planted either with oil palm or rubber, and given 20 years to pay off the debt for the land.
After Malaysia achieved independence in 1957, the government focused on value adding of rubber planting, boosting exports, and alleviating poverty through land schemes. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government encouraged planting of other crops, to cushion the economy when world prices of tin and rubber plunged. Rubber estates gave way to oil palm plantations. In 1961, Felda’s first oil palm settlement opened, with 3.75 km of land. As of 2000, 6,855.2 km (approximately 76%) of the land under Felda’s programmes were devoted to oil palms.
Research
In the 1960s, research and development (R&D) in oil palm breeding began to expand after Malaysia’s Department of Agriculture established an exchange program with West African economies and four private plantations formed the Oil Palm Genetics Laboratory. The government also established Kolej Serdang, which became the Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (UPM) in the 1970s to train agricultural and agro-industrial engineers and agro-business graduates to conduct research in the field.
In 1979, following strong lobbying from oil palm planters and support from the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) and UPM, the government set up the Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (Porim). B.C. Sekhar was instrumental in Porim’s recruitment and training of scientists to undertake R&D in oil palm tree breeding, palm oil nutrition and potential oleochemical use. Sekhar, as founder and chairman, strategised Porim to be a public-and-private-coordinated institution. As a result, Porim (renamed Malaysian Palm Oil Board in 2000) became Malaysia’s top research entity with the highest technology commercialisation rate of 20% compared to 5% among local universities. While MPOB has gained international prominence, its relevance is dependent on it churning out breakthrough findings in the world’s fast-changing oil crop genetics, dietary fat nutrition and process engineering landscape.
Palm oil production
Fruit of oil palm tree
The oil palm originated in West Africa but has since been planted successfully in tropical regions within 20 degrees of the equator. There is evidence of palm oil use in Ancient Egypt.[citation needed] In the Republic of the Congo, or Congo Brazzaville, precisely in the Northern part, not far from Ouesso, local people produce this oil by hand. They harvest the fruit, boil it to let the water part evaporate, then they press what is left in order to collect the reddish, orange colored oil.
In 1995, Malaysia was the world’s largest producer with 51% of world production. Malaysia has exported more than 13 million metric tons of palm oil worth nearly $10 billion in 2007, according to government estimates. Since 2007, Indonesia emerged the world’s largest producer of palm oil producing approximately 50% of world palm oil volume.
Worldwide palm oil production during the 2005-2006 growing season was 39.8 million metric tons, of which 4.3 million tons was in the form of palm kernel oil. It is thus by far the most widely-produced tropical oil, and constitutes thirty percent of total edible oil production worldwide..
Social and environmental impacts
See also: Environmental impact of palm oil
The social and environmental impacts of oil palm cultivation is a highly controversial topic. There are multiple sources highlighting the positive and negative aspects of this industry. Oil palm is a valuable economic crop and provides a major source of employment. It allows many small landholders to participate in the cash economy and also often results in the upgrade of the infrastructure (schools, roads, telecommunications) within that area.[citation needed] However, there are cases where native customary lands have been appropriated by oil palm plantations without any form of consultation or compensation, leading to social conflict between the plantations and local residents. In some cases oil palm plantations are dependent on imported labour or illegal immigrants, and there are some concerns about the employment conditions and social impacts of these practices.
Biodiversity loss (including the potential extinction of charismatic species) is one of the most serious negative effects of oil palm cultivation. Large areas of already threatened tropical rainforest often need to be cleared to make way for plantations, especially in South-East Asia where there is a lack of enforcement of forest protection laws. The impacts of oil palm plantations on the environment is dependent on multiple factors, including the existence and compliance to environmental legislation, the pre-establishment habitat and corporate responsibility. In some states where oil palm is established there had been little enforcement of environmental legislation leading to encroachment of plantations into protected areas, encroachment into riparian strips, open burning of plantation wastes[citation needed] and release of palm mill pollutants such as palm oil mill effluent (POME) in the environment. Some of these states have recognised the need for increased environmental protection and this is resulting in more environmental friendly practices.. Among those approaches is anaerobic treatment of POME. POME can be a good source for biogas (CH4) production and electricity generation. Anaerobic treatment of POME has been practiced in Malaysia and Indonesia. Like most wastewater sludge, anaerobic treatment of POME results in domination of Methanosaeta concilii. It plays an important role in methane production from acetate and the optimum condition for its growth should be considered to harvest biogas as renewable fuel.
Demand for palm oil has increased in recent years due to its use as a biofuel, but recognition that this increases the environmental impact of cultivation as well as causing a food vs fuel issue has forced some developed nations to reconsider their policies on biofuel to improve standards and ensure sustainability. Producers of palm oil say the difficulty in selling higher-priced sustainable palm oils in European markets at the urging of European consumer groups and nongovernmental organizations highlights the double standards of those who criticize the industry but buy the cheaper, uncertified oil that they say is harming the environment. However, critics point out that even companies signed up to the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil continue to engage in environmentally damaging practices and that using palm oil as biofuel is perverse because it encourages the conversion of natural habitats such as forests and peatlands, releasing large quantities of greenhouse gases.
Malayan folkculture
Since the days when the ‘guineesis’ was first introduced by the British, Indians laborer were brought in to work the estates. It was there that Hindu beliefs mixed with the local Malay culture and started the usage of palm seeds by traditional healers suffixed with tok ‘bomoh’ or ‘pawang’ in the local language. It was found that every bunch of palm fruit usually bears a single ‘illustrious’ seed which looks like a shiny black pearl called ‘sbatmi’ in Tamil and ‘shakti’ in Malay. These are used as accessories by the ‘bomoh’ and ‘pawang’ in the mixed ritual for peace with nature as these are believed to contain mystical healing properties and one who wears it are blessed by nature.
Modern usage have seen more and more common people keeping these as a charm/fashion item to feel at peace thanks to its use on Television by some celebrities. It must be noted that all palm seeds contain acid and these sbatmi are no different and should be handled with care. Sbatmi lost some popularity when in 1993 it was used in a grisly ritual by the infamous Mona Fandey.
See also
Attalea maripa (American oil palm)
Energy and the environment
References
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Elaeis guineensis
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil
Elaeis guineensis in West African plants – A Photo Guide.
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